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DOI： 10.1016/j.jdermsci.2022.10.004

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DOI： 10.11154/pain.37.89

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Orofacial neuropathic pain can cause considerable disruptions in patients' daily lives, especially because of a lack of effective medications as its underlying causative mechanisms are not fully understood. Here, we found neuron-specific expression of the interleukin (IL)-33 receptor in the trigeminal spinal subnucleus caudalis (Vc), distinct from the spinal dorsal horn. Reduction in head withdrawal threshold in response to von Frey filament stimulation of the whisker pad skin was inversely correlated with the upregulation of IL-33 in the Vc after infraorbital nerve injury (IONI). Neutralization of IL-33 in the Vc alleviated mechanical allodynia in the whisker pad skin after IONI; conversely, intracisternal administration of IL-33 elicited mechanical allodynia in the whisker pad skin, which was relieved by GluN2B antagonism. Moreover, IL-33 triggered the potentiation of GluN2B-containing N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor-mediated synaptic currents and phosphorylation of synaptosomal GluN2B in the Vc, whereas IONI-induced GluN2B phosphorylation was inhibited by neutralization of IL-33 in the Vc. IL-33-induced GluN2B phosphorylation was mediated by phosphorylation of Fyn kinase, and inhibition of the Fyn kinase pathway prevented the development of IL-33-induced mechanical allodynia.. Our findings provide insights into a new mechanism by which IL-33 directly regulates synaptic transmission and suggest that IL-33 signaling could be a candidate target for therapeutic interventions for orofacial neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.10.013

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Metachromatic leukodystrophy (MLD) is a lysosomal storage disease caused by an arylsulfatase A (ARSA) deficiency and characterized by severe neurological symptoms resulting from demyelination within the central and peripheral nervous systems. We investigated the feasibility and efficacy of intrathecal administration of a type 9 adeno-associated viral vector encoding ARSA (AAV9/ARSA) for the treatment of 6-week-old MLD model mice, which are presymptomatic, and 1-year-old mice, which exhibit neurological abnormalities. Immunohistochemical analysis following AAV9/ARSA administration showed ARSA expression within the brain, with highest activities in the cerebellum and olfactory bulbs. In mice treated at 1 year, alcian blue staining and quantitative analysis revealed significant decreases in stored sulfatide. Behaviorally, mice treated at 1 year showed no improvement in their ability to traverse narrow balance beams as compared to untreated mice. By contrast, MLD mice treated at 6 weeks showed significant decreases in stored sulfatide throughout the entire brain and improved ability to traverse narrow balance beams. These findings suggest intrathecal administration of an AAV9/ARSA vector is a promising approach to treating genetic diseases of the central nervous system, including MLD, though it may be essential to begin therapy before the onset of neurological symptoms.

DOI： 10.1038/s41598-021-99979-2

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Authorship：Corresponding author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：SAGE PUBLICATIONS INC  

Oxaliplatin, a platinum-based chemotherapeutic agent, frequently causes severe neuropathic pain typically encompassing cold allodynia and long-lasting mechanical allodynia. Endothelin has been shown to modulate nociceptive transmission in a variety of pain disorders. However, the action of endothelin varies greatly depending on many variables, including pain causes, receptor types (endothelin type A (ETA) and B (ETB) receptors) and organs (periphery and spinal cord). Therefore, in this study, we investigated the role of endothelin in a Sprague-Dawley rat model of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain. Intraperitoneal administration of bosentan, a dual ETA/ETB receptor antagonist, effectively blocked the development or prevented the onset of both cold allodynia and mechanical allodynia. The preventive effects were exclusively mediated by ETA receptor antagonism. Intrathecal administration of an ETA receptor antagonist prevented development of long-lasting mechanical allodynia but not cold allodynia. In marked contrast, an intraplantar ETA receptor antagonist had a suppressive effect on cold allodynia but only had a partial and transient effect on mechanical allodynia. In conclusion, ETA receptor antagonism effectively prevented long-lasting mechanical allodynia through spinal and peripheral actions, while cold allodynia was prevented through peripheral actions.

DOI： 10.1177/17448069211058004

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BACKGROUND: Neovascularization plays a critical role in skin graft survival. Up to date, the lack of specificity to solely track the newly sprouting blood vessels has remained a limiting factor in skin graft transplantation models. Therefore, the authors developed a new model by using Flt1-tdsRed BAC transgenic mice. Flt1 is a vascular endothelial growth factor receptor expressed by sprouting endothelial cells mediating neoangiogenesis. The authors determined whether this model reliably visualizes neovascularization by quantifying tdsRed fluorescence in the graft over 14 days. METHODS: Cross-transplantation of two full-thickness 1 × 1-cm dorsal skin grafts was performed between 6- to 8-week-old male Flt1 mice and KSN/Slc nude mice (n = 5). The percentage of graft area occupied by tdsRed fluorescence in the central and lateral areas of the graft on days 3, 5, 9, and 14 was determined using confocal-laser scanning microscopy. RESULTS: Flt1+ endothelial cells migrating from the transgenic wound bed into the nude graft were first visible in the reticular dermis of the graft center on day 3 (0.5 ± 0.1; p < 0.05). Peak neovascularization was observed on day 9 in the lateral and central parts, increasing by 2- to 4-fold (4.6 ± 0.8 and 4.2 ± 0.9; p < 0.001). Notably, some limited neoangiogenesis was displayed within the Flt grafts on nude mice, particularly in the center. No neovascularization was observed from the wound margins. CONCLUSION: The ability of the Flt1-tdsRed transgenic mouse model to efficiently identify the origin of the skin-graft vasculature and visualize graft neovascularization over time suggests its potential utility for developing techniques that promote graft neovascularization.

DOI： 10.1097/PRS.0000000000008039

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BACKGROUND: The authors developed a noncontact low-frequency ultrasound device that delivers high-intensity mechanical force based on phased-array technology. It may aid wound healing because it is likely to be associated with lower risks of infection and heat-induced pain compared with conventional ultrasound methods. The authors hypothesized that the microdeformation it induces accelerates wound epithelialization. Its effects on key wound-healing processes (angiogenesis, collagen accumulation, and angiogenesis-related gene transcription) were also examined. METHODS: Immediately after wounding, bilateral acute wounds in C57BL/6J mice were noncontact low-frequency ultrasound- and sham-stimulated for 1 hour/day for 3 consecutive days (10 Hz/90.6 Pa). Wound closure (epithelialization) was recorded every 2 days as the percentage change in wound area relative to baseline. Wound tissue was procured on days 2, 5, 7, and 14 (five to six per time point) and subjected to histopathology with hematoxylin and eosin and Masson trichrome staining, CD31 immunohistochemistry, and quantitative polymerase-chain reaction analysis. RESULTS: Compared to sham-treated wounds, ultrasound/phased-array-treated wounds exhibited significantly accelerated epithelialization (65 ± 27 percent versus 30 ± 33 percent closure), angiogenesis (4.6 ± 1.7 percent versus 2.2 ± 1.0 percent CD31 area), and collagen deposition (44 ± 14 percent versus 28 ± 13 percent collagen density) on days 5, 2, and 5, respectively (all p < 0.05). The expression of Notch ligand delta-like 1 protein (Dll1) and Notch1, which participate in angiogenesis, was transiently enhanced by treatment on days 2 and 5, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The authors' noncontact low-frequency ultrasound phased-array device improved the wound-healing rate. It was associated with increased early neovascularization that was followed by high levels of collagen-matrix production and epithelialization. The device may expand the mechanotherapeutic proangiogenesis field, thereby helping stimulate a revolution in infected wound care.

DOI： 10.1097/PRS.0000000000006481

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DOI： 10.1177/1744806920904462

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DOI： 10.1016/j.omtn.2019.11.011

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DOI： 10.1097/PRS.0000000000006481

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Authorship：Corresponding author   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：Japanese Association for the Study of Pain  

DOI： 10.11154/pain.34.219

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Authorship：Corresponding author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)  

BACKGROUND: Neuropathic pain is an intractable chronic pain condition caused by damage to the somatosensory system. Although non-coding RNAs such as microRNAs are important regulators of neuropathic pain, the role of long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) is poorly understood. METHODS: This study used a rat model of neuropathic pain induced by lumbar fifth spinal nerve ligation (SNL). Microarray analysis of lncRNAs in the lumbar fifth dorsal root ganglion was performed at day 14 after SNL. Expression levels of H19 were examined by using quantitative PCR. In situ hybridization was used to determine the distribution of H19 at day 14 after SNL. Schwann cells were isolated from peripheral nerves at day 14 after SNL. RESULTS: H19 lncRNA was greatly increased in the L5 dorsal root ganglion at day 14 after SNL and was significantly higher at and after day 4. In the dorsal root ganglion, H19 was detected mainly in non-neuronal cells but not in primary sensory neurons. Consistent with this, H19 expression was upregulated in Schwann cells isolated from peripheral nerves after SNL. CONCLUSION: Increased H19 lncRNA in Schwann cells might be involved in neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1272/jnms.JNMS.2018_86-402

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Language：Japanese  

DOI： 10.14952/SEIKAGAKU.2018.900524

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miR-17-92 is a microRNA cluster with six distinct members. Here, we show that the miR-17-92 cluster and its individual members modulate chronic neuropathic pain. All cluster members are persistently upregulated in primary sensory neurons after nerve injury. Overexpression of miR-18a, miR-19a, miR-19b and miR-92a cluster members elicits mechanical allodynia in rats, while their blockade alleviates mechanical allodynia in a rat model of neuropathic pain. Plausible targets for the miR-17-92 cluster include genes encoding numerous voltage-gated potassium channels and their modulatory subunits. Single-cell analysis reveals extensive co-expression of miR-17-92 cluster and its predicted targets in primary sensory neurons. miR-17-92 downregulates the expression of potassium channels, and reduced outward potassium currents, in particular A-type currents. Combined application of potassium channel modulators synergistically alleviates mechanical allodynia induced by nerve injury or miR-17-92 overexpression. miR-17-92 cluster appears to cooperatively regulate the function of multiple voltage-gated potassium channel subunits, perpetuating mechanical allodynia.

DOI： 10.1038/ncomms16079

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Authorship：Corresponding author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：WILEY  

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE
Although oxaliplatin is an effective anti-cancer platinum compound, it can cause painful chronic neuropathy, and its molecular mechanisms are poorly understood. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs that negatively regulate gene expression in a sequence-specific manner. Although miRNAs have been increasingly recognized as important modulators in a variety of pain conditions, their involvement in chemotherapy-induced neuropathic pain is unknown.
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH
Oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathic pain was induced in rats by i.p. injections of oxaliplatin (2 mg.kg(-1)) for five consecutive days. The expression levels of miR-15b and beta-site amyloid precursor protein-cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1 also known as beta-secretase 1) were examined in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG). To examine the function of miR-15b, an adeno-associated viral vector encoding miR-15b was injected into the DRG in vivo.
KEY RESULTS
Among the miRNAs examined in the DRG in the late phase of oxaliplatin-induced neuropathic pain, miR-15b was most robustly increased. Our in vitro assay results determined that BACE1 was a target of miR-15b. BACE1 and miR-15b were co-expressed in putative myelinated and unmyelinated DRG neurons. Overexpression of miR-15b in DRG neurons caused mechanical allodynia in association with reduced expression of BACE1. Consistent with these results, a BACE1 inhibitor dose-dependently induced significant mechanical allodynia.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS
These findings suggest that miR-15b contributes to oxaliplatin-induced chronic neuropathic pain at least in part through the down-regulation of BACE1.

DOI： 10.1111/bph.13698

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Background and PurposeThe locus coeruleus (LC) is the principal nucleus containing the noradrenergic neurons and is a major endogenous source of pain modulation in the brain. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a well-established neurotrophic factor for noradrenergic neurons, is a major pain modulator in the spinal cord and primary sensory neurons. However, it is unknown whether GDNF is involved in pain modulation in the LC.
Experimental ApproachRats with chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the left sciatic nerve were used as a model of neuropathic pain. GDNF was injected into the left LC of rats with CCI for 3 consecutive days and changes in mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were assessed. The (2)-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine was injected intrathecally to assess the involvement of descending inhibition in GDNF-mediated analgesia. The MEK inhibitor U0126 was used to investigate whether the ERK signalling pathway plays a role in the analgesic effects of GDNF.
Key ResultsBoth mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia were attenuated 24h after the first GDNF injection. GDNF increased the noradrenaline content in the dorsal spinal cord. The analgesic effects continued for at least 3 days after the last injection. Yohimbine abolished these effects of GDNF. The analgesic effects of GDNF were partly, but significantly, inhibited by prior injection of U0126 into the LC.
Conclusions and ImplicationsGDNF injection into the LC exerts prolonged analgesic effects on neuropathic pain in rats by enhancing descending noradrenergic inhibition.

DOI： 10.1111/bph.13073

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Authorship：Corresponding author   Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：SPRINGER INT PUBLISHING AG  

Pain is an important protective system that alerts organisms to actual or possible tissue damage. However, a variety of pathologies can lead to chronic pain that is no longer beneficial. Lesions or diseases of the somatosensory nervous system cause intractable neuropathic pain that occasionally lasts even after the original pathology subsides. Chronic inflammatory diseases like arthritis are also associated with severe pain. Because conventional analgesics such as non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and opioids have limited efficacy and/or severe adverse events associated with long-term use, chronic pain remains a major problem in clinical practice. Recently, causal roles of microRNAs in chronic pain and their therapeutic potential have been emerging. microRNA expressions are altered not only at the primary origin of pain, but also along the somatosensory pathways. Notably, microRNA expressions are differentially affected depending on the causes of chronic pain. This chapter summarizes current insights into the roles of microRNAs in pain based on the underlying pathologies.

DOI： 10.1007/978-3-319-22671-2_3

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Background and Purpose: Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder with a strong genetic basis. Although anxiety is a common major psychiatric condition in ASD, the underlying mechanisms of the anxiety are poorly understood. In individuals with ASD, evidence indicates a structural abnormality in the amygdala, a key component involved in anxiety and social behavior. Microglia, which are central nervous system-resident immune cells implicated in neurodevelopmental processes, are also reportedly altered in ASD. In the present study, we examined the involvement of microglia in the anxiety-related behaviors of ASD model mouse. Methods: Mice that have a 6.3-Mb paternal duplication (patDp/+) corresponding to human chromosome 15q11-q13 were used as an ASD model. Iba1, a microglial activation marker, was examined in the amygdala using immunofluorescence. Effects of perinatal treatment with minocycline, a microglial modulator, on anxiety-related behaviors were examined in neonatal and adolescent patDp/+ mice. Results: In patDp/+ mice, Iba1 was decreased in the basolateral amygdala at postnatal day 7, but not at postnatal days 37-40. Perinatal treatment with minocycline restored the Iba1 expression and reduced anxiety-related behaviors in patDp/+ adolescent mice. Conclusions: Perinatal microglia in the basolateral amygdala may play a pathogenic role in the anxiety observed in a mouse model of ASD with duplication of human chromosome 15q11-q13.

DOI： 10.1272/jnms.82.92

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Language：English   Publisher：PERGAMON-ELSEVIER SCIENCE LTD  

Chronic pain is a debilitating syndrome caused by a variety of disorders, and represents a major clinical problem because of the lack of adequate medication. In chronic pain, massive changes in gene expression are observed in a variety of cells, including neurons and glia, in the overall somatosensory system from the sensory ganglia to the higher central nervous system. The protein expressions of hundreds of genes are thought to be post-transcriptionally regulated by a single type of microRNA in a sequence-specific manner. Recently, critical roles of microRNAs in the pathophysiology of chronic pain have been emerging. Genome-wide screenings of microRNA expression changes have been reported in a variety of painful conditions, including peripheral nerve injury, inflammatory diseases, cancer and spinal cord injury. The data obtained suggest that a wide range of microRNAs change their expressions in individual pain conditions, although the pathological significance of individual microRNAs as causal mediators in distinct pain conditions remains to be revealed for a limited number of microRNAs. Insights into the roles of microRNAs in chronic pain will enhance our understanding of the pathophysiology of chronic pain and allow prompt therapeutic application of microRNA-related drugs against intractable persistent pain. (C) 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.neuint.2014.05.010

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：OXFORD UNIV PRESS  

Neuronal damage in the somatosensory system causes intractable chronic neuropathic pain. Plastic changes in sensory neuron excitability are considered the cellular basis of persistent pain. Non-coding microRNAs modulate specific gene translation to impact on diverse cellular functions and their dysregulation causes various diseases. However, their significance in adult neuronal functions and disorders is still poorly understood. Here, we show that miR-7a is a key functional RNA sustaining the late phase of neuropathic pain through regulation of neuronal excitability in rats. In the late phase of neuropathic pain, microarray analysis identified miR-7a as the most robustly decreased microRNA in the injured dorsal root ganglion. Moreover, local induction of miR-7a, using an adeno-associated virus vector, in sensory neurons of injured dorsal root ganglion, suppressed established neuropathic pain. In contrast, miR-7a overexpression had no effect on acute physiological or inflammatory pain. Furthermore, miR-7a downregulation was sufficient to cause pain-related behaviours in intact rats. miR-7a targeted the beta 2 subunit of the voltage-gated sodium channel, and decreased miR-7a associated with neuropathic pain caused increased beta 2 subunit protein expression, independent of messenger RNA levels. Consistently, miR-7a overexpression in primary sensory neurons of injured dorsal root ganglion suppressed increased beta 2 subunit expression and normalized long-lasting hyperexcitability of nociceptive neurons. These findings demonstrate miR-7a downregulation is causally involved in maintenance of neuropathic pain through regulation of neuronal excitability, and miR-7a replenishment offers a novel therapeutic strategy specific for chronic neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1093/brain/awt191

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Neuropathic pain is intractable chronic pain caused by damage to the somatosensory system. Peripheral nerve injury of the primary sensory neurons changes expressions of multiple microRNAs that affect many aspects of cellular functions by regulating specific gene expressions. miR-21, a well-characterized oncogenic miRNA, is consistently upregulated after peripheral nerve injury in the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), where cell bodies of primary sensory neurons exist. However, their causal relationship to the pain is fully unknown. In this study, we therefore investigated the miR-21 expression in the DRGs along with the time course of neuropathic pain and its involvement in the neuropathic pain. Neuropathic pain was induced in rats by specific ligation of the left fifth lumbar spinal nerve. After the injury, miR-21 expression in the injured DRG neurons, but not in the neighboring uninjured DRG neurons, was persistently upregulated following the pain development. Intrathecal administration of interleukin-1 beta also increased the miR-21 expression in the DRG. Both mechanical allodynia and thermal hyperalgesia in the neuropathic pain were attenuated by intrathecal administration of miR-21 inhibitor. miR-21 is specifically upregulated in the injured DRG neurons and causally involved in the late phase of neuropathic pain. Therefore, miR-21 and its modulatory system may be a therapeutic target for intractable chronic neuropathic pain. (c) 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.bbrc.2013.04.089

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The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) is the origin of the central serotonin [5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT)] system and plays an important role in the regulation of many physiological functions such as sleep/arousal, food intake and mood. In order to understand the regulatory mechanisms of 5-HT system, characterization of the types of neurons is necessary. We performed electrophysiological recordings in acute slices of glutamate decarboxylase 67-green fluorescent protein knock-in mice. We utilized this mouse to identify visually GABAergic cells. Especially, we examined postsynaptic responses mediated by 5-HT receptors between GABAergic and serotonergic cells in the DRN. Various current responses were elicited by 5-HT and 5-HT1A or 5-HT2A/2C receptor agonists in GABAergic cells. These results suggested that multiple 5-HT receptor subtypes overlap on GABAergic cells, and their combination might control 5-HT cells. Understanding the postsynaptic 5-HT feedback mechanisms may help to elucidate the 5-HT neurotransmitter system and develop novel therapeutic approaches. © 2012 The Author(s).

DOI： 10.1007/s12576-012-0250-7

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BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE The locus coeruleus (LC) is a major source of noradrenergic projections to the dorsal spinal cord, and thereby plays an important role in the modulation of nociceptive information. The LC receives inputs from substance P (SP)-containing fibres from other regions, and expresses the NK1 tachykinin receptor, a functional receptor for SP. In the present study, we investigated the roles of SP in the LC in neuropathic pain. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH Chronic constriction injury (CCI) of the left sciatic nerve was performed in rats to induce neuropathic pain. After development of neuropathic pain, SP was injected into the LC and the nocifensive behaviours were assessed. The involvement of noradrenergic descending inhibition in SP-induced analgesia was examined by i.t. administration of yohimbine, an a2-adrenoceptor antagonist. NK1 receptor expression in the LC was examined by immunohistochemistry. KEY RESULTS In CCI rats, mechanical allodynia was alleviated by SP injection into the LC. These effects were abolished by prior injection of WIN 51708, an NK1 receptor antagonist, into the LC or i.t. treatment with yohimbine. NK1 receptor-like immunoreactivity was observed in noradrenergic neurons throughout the LC in intact rats, and remained unchanged after CCI. CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS SP in the LC exerted analgesic effects on neuropathic pain through NK1 receptor activation and resulted in facilitation of spinal noradrenergic transmission. Accordingly, manipulation of the SP/NK1 receptor signalling pathway in the LC may be a promising strategy for effective treatment of neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1111/j.1476-5381.2011.01820.x

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The mammalian tachykinins, substance P (SP) and hemokinin-1 (HK-1), are widely distributed throughout the nervous system and/or peripheral organs, and function as neurotransmitters or chemical modulators by activating their cognate receptor NK1. The TAC1 gene encoding SP is highly expressed in the nervous system, while the TAC4 gene encoding HK-1 is uniformly expressed throughout the body, including a variety of peripheral immune cells. Since TAC4 mRNA is also expressed in microglia, the resident immune cells in the central nervous system, HK-1 may be involved in the inflammatory processes mediated by these cells. In the present study, we found that TAC4, rather than TAC1, was the predominant tachykinin gene expressed in primary cultured microglia. TAC4 mRNA expression was upregulated in the microglia upon their activation by lipopolysaccharide, a well-characterized Toll-like receptor 4 agonist, while TAC1 mRNA expression was downregulated. Furthermore, both nuclear factor-kappa B and p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase intracellular signaling pathways were required for the upregulation of TAC4 mRNA expression, but not for the downregulation of TAC1 mRNA expression. These findings suggest that HK-1, rather than SP, plays dominant roles in the pathological conditions associated with microglial activation, such as neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders.

DOI： 10.1371/journal.pone.0032268

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Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic multisystem disease characterized by persistent joint inflammation associated with severe pain. Because RA is an immune-mediated joint disease and because type II collagen is considered an autoantigen, rodent models of arthritis using collagen type II-specific monoclonal antibodies are valuable for studying the pathogenesis of autoimmune arthritis and for evaluating therapeutic strategies. The tachykinin family peptides, substance P (SP) and hemokinin-1 (HK-1), are expressed in the nervous systems and in many peripheral organs and immunocompetent cells and activate tachykinin NK1 receptors with similar affinities. NK1 receptors are involved in the inflammation and hyperalgesia associated with a variety of inflammatory diseases. In the present study, we examined the involvement of SP and HK-1 in the joint inflammation and hyperalgesia in a collagen antibody-induced arthritis (CAIA) model in mice. The messenger RNA expression levels of the TAC1 gene encoding SP and of the TAC4 gene encoding HK-1 were decreased in the dorsal root ganglia and spinal cord at the peak of the inflammatory symptoms in CAIA. Systemic injection of an NK1 receptor antagonist, WIN 51708, significantly inhibited the joint swelling, but not the mechanical allodynia, on day 7 in CAIA mice. The messenger RNA expression levels of TAC1 and TAC4 in the dorsal root ganglia and dorsal spinal cord were unaffected by treatment with WIN 51708. These findings suggest that tachykinins and NK1 receptors play a key role in joint inflammation, rather than in nociceptive sensitization, in CAIA.

DOI： 10.1272/jnms.79.129

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：JAPANESE PHARMACOLOGICAL SOC  

Glycyrrhetinic acid (GA), an aglycone of glycyrrhizin, isolated from the licorice root (Glycyrrhizia), and its semi-synthetic derivatives have a wide range of pharmacological effects. To investigate whether GA derivatives may be used as a new class of analgesics, we examined the effects of these compounds on human tachykinin receptors expressed in CHO-K1 cells. Among the GA derivatives examined, the disodium salt of olean-11,13(18)-dien-3 beta,30-O-dihemiphthalate inhibited the mobilization of [Ca(2+)], induced by substance P, neurokinin A, and neurokinin B in CHO-K1 cells expressing the human NK(1), NK(2), and NK(3) tachykinin receptors, respectively. In an inflammatory pain model, Compound 5 suppressed the capsaicin-induced flinching behavior in a dose-dependent manner. Compound 5 was also effective in suppressing pain-related behaviors in the late phase of the formalin test and reducing thermal hyperalgesia in the neuropathic pain state caused by sciatic nerve injury. Collectively, Compound 5 may be an analgesic candidate via tachykinin receptor antagonism.

DOI： 10.1254/jphs.11116FP

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：CHURCHILL LIVINGSTONE  

Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a survival-promoting factor for a subset of nociceptive small-diameter neurons, has been shown to exert analgesic effects on neuropathic pain. However, its detailed mechanisms of action are still unknown. In the present study, we investigated the site-specific analgesic effects of GDNF in the neuropathic pain state using lentiviral vector-mediated GDNF overexpression in mice with left fifth lumbar (15) spinal nerve ligation (SNL) as a neuropathic pain model. A lentiviral vector expressing both GDNF and enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) was constructed and injected into the left dorsal spinal cord, uninjured fourth lumbar (14) dorsal root ganglion (DRG), injured 15 DRG, or plantar skin of mice. In SNL mice, injection of the GDNF-EGFP-expressing lentivirus into the dorsal spinal cord or uninjured L4 DRG partially but significantly reduced the mechanical allodynia in association with an increase in GDNF protein expression in each virus injection site, whereas injection into the injured 15 DRG or plantar skin had no effects. These results suggest that GDNF exerts its analgesic effects in the neuropathic pain state by acting on the central terminals of uninjured DRG neurons and/or on the spinal cells targeted by the uninjured DRG neurons.
Perspective: This article shows that GDNF exerts its analgesic effects on neuropathic pain by acting on the central terminals of uninjured DRG neurons and/or on the spinal cells targeted by these neurons. Therefore, research focusing on these GDNF-dependent neurons in the uninjured DRG would provide a new strategy for treating neuropathic pain. (C) 2011 by the American Pain Society

DOI： 10.1016/j.jpain.2011.04.003

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Persistent pain associated with inflammatory arthritis is an aggravating factor that decreases patients' quality of life. Current therapies for joint pain have limited effectiveness and produce unwanted negative side effects. Although the involvement of substance P and its cognate tachykinin receptor, NK1, in joint inflammation has been extensively documented through animal experiments, the development of oral tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists against arthritis-induced pain has been unsuccessful in humans to date. To explore the possibility of using tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists as local therapeutic agents for inflammatory arthritis, we examined the effects of tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists administered into the rat ankle joint on hyperalgesia in complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced inflammatory monoarthritis. Administration of the tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist WIN 51708 or GR 82334 into the affected ankle joint at day 3 following intra-articular CFA injection reduced the mechanical hyperalgesia 12 h after the tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonist injection and their analgesic effects persisted for at least 2 days. Histological examinations revealed that intra-articular WIN 51708 reduced the CFA-induced destructive changes in the cartilage. These findings suggest that intra-articular injection of tachykinin NK1 receptor antagonists is a promising strategy for relieving the hyperalgesia that occurs in inflammatory arthritis. (C) 2011 Elsevier B. V. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.ejphar.2011.06.037

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：ELSEVIER IRELAND LTD  

The rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM) is a major region for the descending modulation of pain at the spinal cord level, and neurons in the RVM have been implicated in the inhibition and facilitation of spinal nociceptive transmission. Although recent studies have established that the RVM facilitation of nociceptive transmission in the spinal cord contributes to neuropathic pain, the underlying mechanisms remain largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the effects of kainic acid (KA)-induced RVM damage on neuropathic pain behavior and the expression of molecules implicated in pain modulation. KA was injected into the RVM midline region after neuropathic pain was established by chronic constrictive injury of the left sciatic nerve. Thermal hyperalgesia, but not mechanical allodynia, was persistently suppressed in the ipsilateral paw by a single KA injection into the RVM for at least the next 7 days in a rat neuropathic pain model. KA injection alone did not affect the nocifensive responses to mechanical and thermal stimuli on the intact side. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed that KA injection into the RVM significantly reduced the number of immunoreactive neurons for mu-opioid receptors, but not tryptophan hydroxylase, in association with the analgesic effect. These results suggest that a subset of RVM neurons expressing mu-opioid receptors contribute to the maintenance of thermal hyperalgesia in neuropathic pain. (C) 2011 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2011.01.003

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：BIOMED CENTRAL LTD  

Background: Local anesthetics alleviate neuropathic pain in some cases in clinical practice, and exhibit longer durations of action than those predicted on the basis of the pharmacokinetics of their blocking effects on voltage-dependent sodium channels. Therefore, local anesthetics may contribute to additional mechanisms for reversal of the sensitization of nociceptive pathways that occurs in the neuropathic pain state. In recent years, spinal glial cells, microglia and astrocytes, have been shown to play critical roles in neuropathic pain, but their participation in the analgesic effects of local anesthetics remains largely unknown.
Results: Repetitive epidural administration of ropivacaine reduced the hyperalgesia induced by chronic constrictive injury of the sciatic nerve. Concomitantly with this analgesia, ropivacaine suppressed the increases in the immunoreactivities of CD11b and glial fibrillary acidic protein in the dorsal spinal cord, as markers of activated microglia and astrocytes, respectively. In addition, epidural administration of a TrkA-IgG fusion protein that blocks the action of nerve growth factor (NGF), which was upregulated by ropivacaine in the dorsal root ganglion, prevented the inhibitory effect of ropivacaine on microglia, but not astrocytes. The blockade of NGF action also abolished the analgesic effect of ropivacaine on neuropathic pain.
Conclusions: Ropivacaine provides prolonged analgesia possibly by suppressing microglial activation in an NGF-dependent manner and astrocyte activation in an NGF-independent manner in the dorsal spinal cord. Local anesthetics, including ropivacaine, may represent a new approach for glial cell inhibition and, therefore, therapeutic strategies for neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1186/1744-8069-7-2

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：NATL ACAD SCIENCES  

Serotonergic antidepressant drugs have been commonly used to treat mood and anxiety disorders, and increasing evidence suggests potential use of these drugs beyond current antidepressant therapeutics. Facilitation of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampal dentate gyrus has been suggested to be a candidate mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs, but this mechanism may be only one of the broad effects of antidepressants. Here we show a distinct unique action of the serotonergic antidepressant fluoxetine in transforming the phenotype of mature dentate granule cells. Chronic treatments of adult mice with fluoxetine strongly reduced expression of the mature granule cell marker calbindin. The fluoxetine treatment induced active somatic membrane properties resembling immature granule cells and markedly reduced synaptic facilitation that characterizes the mature dentate-to-CA3 signal transmission. These changes cannot be explained simply by an increase in newly generated immature neurons, but best characterized as "dematuration" of mature granule cells. This granule cell dematuration developed along with increases in the efficacy of serotonin in 5-HT4 receptor-dependent neuromodulation and was attenuated in mice lacking the 5-HT4 receptor. Our results suggest that serotonergic antidepressants can reverse the established state of neuronal maturation in the adult hippocampus, and up-regulation of 5-HT4 receptor-mediated signaling may play a critical role in this distinct action of antidepressants. Such reversal of neuronal maturation could affect proper functioning of the mature hippocampal circuit, but may also cause some beneficial effects by reinstating neuronal functions that are lost during development.

DOI： 10.1073/pnas.0912690107

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：WILEY-BLACKWELL  

Background and purpose: Substance P (SP), a representative member of the tachykinin family, is involved in nociception under physiological and pathological conditions. Recently, hemokinin-1 (HK-1) was identified as a new member of this family. Although HK-1 acts on NK1 tachykinin receptors that are thought to be innate for SP, the roles of HK-1 in neuropathic pain are still unknown.
Experimental approach: Using rats that had been subjected to chronic constrictive injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve as a neuropathic pain model, we examined the changes in expression of SP- and HK-1-encoding genes (TAC1 and TAC4, respectively) in the L4/L5 spinal cord and L4/L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) in association with changes in pain-related behaviours in this neuropathic pain state.
Key results: The TAC4 mRNA level was increased on the ipsilateral side of the dorsal spinal cord, but not in DRGs, at day 3 after CCI. In contrast, the TAC1 mRNA level was significantly increased in the DRGs at day 3 after CCI without any changes in the dorsal spinal cord. Analysis of a cultured microglial cell line revealed the presence of TAC4 mRNA in microglial cells. Minocycline, an inhibitor of microglial activation, blocked the increased expression of TAC4 mRNA after CCI and inhibited the associated pain-related behaviours and microglial activation in the spinal cord.
Conclusions and implications: The present results suggest that HK-1 expression is increased at least partly in activated microglial cells after nerve injury and is clearly involved in the early phase of neuropathic pain.

DOI： 10.1038/bjp.2008.301

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Language：Japanese  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：ELSEVIER SCIENCE BV  

Since neuropathic pain is resistant to conventional analgesics such as opiates and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, the development of new types of drugs for its treatment has been awaited. Several key molecules associated with nociception have been suggested as potential targets for new analgesics. Glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) has a variety of functions affecting the survival and development of specified neural cell populations, mediated via transmission of intracellular signals through binding to its high-affinity receptor, GFR alpha 1, and subsequent activation of a tyrosine receptor kinase, RET, neural cell adhesion molecule (NCAM), or other signaling molecules. GDNF also exhibits analgesic effects in rodent models of neuropathic pain, although the underlying mechanisms are still largely unknown, including the intracellular signal transduction involved. We report here that NCAM signaling plays a role in mediating the analgesic effect of GDNF in rats with chronic constrictive injury (M). We found that NCAM was expressed in intrinsic neurons in the spinal dorsal horn and in dorsal root ganglion neurons with small cell bodies. Reduction of NCAM expression by NCAM antisense oligodeoxynucleotide administration to CCI rats abolished the analgesic effect of GDNF without affecting RET signaling activation. An NCAM mimetic peptide, CM, partially reduced the chronic pain induced by CCI. These findings suggest that NCAM signaling plays a critical role in the analgesic effect of GDNF and that development of new drugs activating GDNF-NCAM signaling may represent a new strategy for the relief of intractable pain. (c) 2007 International Association for the Study of Pain. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.pain.2007.09.020

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)  

DOI： 10.1272/jnms.75.136

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS & WILKINS  

BACKGROUND: In clinical practice, the analgesic effects of epidurally administered local anesthetics on chronic pain sometimes outlast the duration of drug action expected from their pharmacokinetics. To investigate the underlying mechanisms of this prolonged effect, we examined the effects of ropivacaine, a local anesthetic, on pain-related behavior in a rat model of neuropathic pain. We also analyzed changes in the expression of nerve growth factor (NGF), which is involved in plasticity of the nociceptive circuit after nerve injury.
METHODS: In a rat model of neuropathic pain produced by chronic constrictive injury (CCI) of the sciatic nerve, thermal hyperalgesia, and mechanical allodynia were observed from Day 3 after surgery. Ropivacaine or saline was administered through an epidural catheter once a day, every day, and from Days 7-13 after the CCI operation. NGF content was measured in the L4 dorsal root ganglion, the hindpaw skin, the L4/5 dorsal spinal cord, and the sciatic nerve, using enzyme immunoassay.
RESULTS: The latency to withdrawal from thermal stimuli on the ipsilateral paw pads of CCI rats was significantly increased 4 days after the beginning of ropivacaine treatment, and thermal hyperalgesia was almost fully relieved. Similarly, mechanical allodynia was partially reduced after ropivacaine treatment. NGF content was increased in the L4 dorsal root ganglion on the ipsilateral, but not the contralateral, side, in CCI rats treated with ropivacaine.
CONCLUSION: Repetitive administration of ropivacaine into the epidural space in CCI rats exerts an analgesic effect, possibly by inducing a plastic change in the nociceptive circuit.

DOI： 10.1213/01.ane.0000296460.91012.51

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：ELSEVIER IRELAND LTD  

Cation chloride cotransporters, K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 2 (KCC2) and Na(+)-K(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter 1 (NKCC1) are reported to be expressed in the neurons in the spinal cord and regulate intracellular Cl(-) concentration. Evidence has been accumulating that the expression of cation chloride cotransporters changes in inflammatory or neuropathic pain, and such changes take a part in pathophysiology of the persistent pain states. However, it is largely unknown how these cotransporters contribute to hyperalgesia in the acute pain state. We, therefore, investigated expression changes of KCC2 and NKCC 1 in the spinal dorsal horn of the rat after the intraplantar injection of formalin as an acute nociceptive stimulus. The rats showed two phases (phases 1 and 2) of increase in pain-related behavior in response to formalin. We found that expression of KCC2-like immunoreactivity (IR) was reduced in lamina I and It in the lumbar spinal cord on the stimulated side in phase 1, and then recovered gradually. In contrast, the number of NKCC1-like IR-positive cells was unchanged over the period examined. These results suggest that KCC2, rather than NKCC1, mainly contributes to modulating excitability of the dorsal spinal cord neurons in the initial stage of formalin-evoked hyperalgesia. (c) 2006 Elsevier Ireland Ltd and the Japan Neuroscience Society. All rights reserved.

DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2006.08.012

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper (scientific journal)   Publisher：NATURE PUBLISHING GROUP  

1 In an attempt to clarify whether glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF), a survival factor for subpopulations of primary afferent neurons, is involved in the states of neuropathic pain, we observed changes in the expressions of GDNF and its signal-transducing receptor Ret after nerve injury in two rat models of neuropathic pain.
2 In the rats treated with sciatic nerve ligation (chronic constrictive injury (CCI) model) or spinal nerve ligation at L5 (SNL model), the thresholds of paw withdrawal in response to mechanical or heat stimuli began to decrease on the injured side within the first week after the operation and the decreases in the thresholds persisted for more than 2 weeks.
3 In CCI-treated rats, the GDNF contents in L4 and L5 dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) on the injured side were markedly decreased at day 7 after the operation and stayed at low levels at day 14. In SNL-treated rats, comparable reductions of GDNF levels in L4 and L5 DRGs on the injured side were observed at 14 postoperative days.
4 Significant decreases of the percentages of DRG neurons expressing Ret were also observed at L4 DRGs in CCI-treated rats at 7 and 14 postoperative days and in SNL-treated rats at 14 days.
5 In CCI- or SNL-treated rats, continuous intrathecal administration of GDNF (12 mug day(-1)) using an osmotic pump suppressed the increased sensitivities to nociceptive stimuli to control levels.
6 The present results suggested that the dysfunction of GDNF signaling in the nociceptive afferent system may contribute to the development and/or maintenance of neuropathic pain states.

DOI： 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705550

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：WILEY-BLACKWELL  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：JAPANESE PHARMACOLOGICAL SOC  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：SPRINGER JAPAN KK  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：MARY ANN LIEBERT INC  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：NATURE PUBLISHING GROUP  

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DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2011.07.1577

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：JAPANESE PHARMACOLOGICAL SOC  

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DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2011.07.1585

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Language：English   Publisher：日本神経化学会  

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：SPRINGER TOKYO  

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DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2010.07.2305

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Language：English   Publishing type：Research paper, summary (international conference)   Publisher：JAPANESE PHARMACOLOGICAL SOC  

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DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2009.09.145

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DOI： 10.1016/j.neures.2009.09.956

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Publisher：PHYSIOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF JAPAN  

The dentate gyrus of the hippocampus has been implicated in behavioral effects of antidepressant drugs including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs). The mossy fiber (MF) is the sole output of dentate granule cells and thus plays a pivotal role in regulation of hippocampal neuronal activity by the dentate gyrus. To test possible involvement of modification of the MF synapse in behavioral changes caused by SSRIs, we examined effects of chronic oral administration of fluoxetine, a widely used SSRI, on behaviors and the MF synaptic transmission in adult mice. Fluoxetine had multiple effects on behaviors and the MF synaptic transmission in a dose-dependent manner. At a lower dose, the fluoxetine treatment reduced activity of mice in a novel environment and affected modulation of the MF synaptic transmission by serotonin without noticeable effects on the synaptic transmission itself. At higher doses, however, it markedly increased fluctuation of home cage activity and anxiety-related behaviors, and also greatly reduced the large synaptic facilitation that is a characteristic of the mature MF synapse. This synaptic change was well correlated with the behavioral changes. In the dentate gyrus of mice treated with the higher dose of fluoxetine, expression of calbindin, a marker for the mature granule cells, was significantly reduced. These results indicate that fluoxetine at high doses can disrupt the maturation state of the dentate gyrus and the MF synaptic transmission in adult mice, which may underlie the destabilized behavior in the treated mice. &lt;b&gt;[J Physiol Sci. 2008;58 Suppl:S35]&lt;/b&gt;

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DOI： 10.1038/sj.bjp.0705772

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